Just have a look at following
•Bt cotton. China has successfully planted Bt cotton since 1997 and now, over 7 million small farmers in China are already increasing their income by approximately US$220 per hectare (equivalent to US$1 billion nationally) due, on average, to a 10% increase in yield, a 60% reduction in insecticide application, both of which contribute to a more sustainable agriculture and prosperity of small poor farmers. China is the largest producer of cotton in the world, with 68% of its 5.6 million hectares successfully planted with Bt cotton in 2008.
•Bt rice offers the potential to generate benefits of US$4 billion annually from an average yield increase of 8%, and an 80% decrease in insecticides, equivalent to 17 kg per hectare on China's major staple food crop, rice, which occupies 30 million hectares (Jikun Huang et al, 2005). It is estimated that 75% of all rice in China is infested with the rice-borer pest, which Bt rice controls. China is the biggest producer of rice in the world (178 million tons of paddy) with 110 million rice households (a total of 440 million people based on 4 per family) who could benefit directly as farmers from this technology, as well as China's 1.3 billion rice consumers.
•Phytase maize. China, after the USA, is the second largest grower of maize in the it is principally used for animal feed. Maintaining self-sufficiency in maize and meeting the increased demand for more meat in a more prosperous China is an enormous challenge. For example, China's swine herd, the biggest in the world, increased 100 fold from 5 million in 1968 to over 500 million today. Phytase maize will allow pigs to digest more phosphorus, resulting in faster growth/more efficient meat production, and coincidentally result in a reduction of phosphate pollution from animal waste into soil and extensive bodies of water and aquifers.
The above advantages of Bt cotton, Bt rice and phytase maize, also offer similar benefits to other developing countries, particularly in Asia, (but also elsewhere in the world) which have very similar crop production constraints. Asia grows and consumes 90% of the production from the world's 150 million hectares of rice, and Bt rice can have enormous impact in Asia. It could not only contribute to increase productivity but could also make a substantive contribution to the alleviation of poverty for poor small farmers who represent 50% of the world's poor.
The approval and deployment by China of the most important food and feed crops in the world, biotech rice and maize, to maintain self-sufficiency, China is aiming to achieve MDG 1 “Free from Hunger by 2015”. Looking onto Indian prespective our population is growing by 1.5 % annually that is we are adding 16-17 million peoples every year with the current rate of hunger elimination we will only be able to reach the above target by 2043 really pathetic ! The approval for Bt crop by china can serve as a model for other developing countries.
Wednesday, March 17, 2010
Sunday, February 28, 2010
BUDGET 2010: TWO STRANGE THINGS
According to me the 2 most Important things of this budget are:
1-Can higher prices of Diesel/petrol be justified?
2-Change of personal income slab? why
Ans to the first question is today crude oil prices are hovering at 112 $ a barrel nearly half of 147 $ so why should the government bear the wasteful subsidy,especially when the oil companies are groaning under the burden.As our PM said now when economy is recovering and people can bear few extra bucks so save governments money for harder times.
The next important thing was change in annual tax slab,the strategy perhaps is that the higher disposable income would itself propel growth through higher consumer demand or else lead to long term savings through infrastructure bonds.A high savings rate is the best bet for any country as it offers long term funds for infrastructure.
Hence don't worry dude what FM is asking you is just spend more "consume" and don't worry when the crude prices again go high we will rescue you,but today u will have to pay.
1-Can higher prices of Diesel/petrol be justified?
2-Change of personal income slab? why
Ans to the first question is today crude oil prices are hovering at 112 $ a barrel nearly half of 147 $ so why should the government bear the wasteful subsidy,especially when the oil companies are groaning under the burden.As our PM said now when economy is recovering and people can bear few extra bucks so save governments money for harder times.
The next important thing was change in annual tax slab,the strategy perhaps is that the higher disposable income would itself propel growth through higher consumer demand or else lead to long term savings through infrastructure bonds.A high savings rate is the best bet for any country as it offers long term funds for infrastructure.
Hence don't worry dude what FM is asking you is just spend more "consume" and don't worry when the crude prices again go high we will rescue you,but today u will have to pay.
Monday, February 1, 2010
What is a Rhizobium
Rhizobium is a symbiotic (diazotrophs) Nitrogen fixer which forms nodules in specific leguminous plants and fixes atmospheric nitrogen. They provide plant with nitrogen and take food (carbon) from them. They are heterotrophs possessing a special enzyme nitrogenase this enzyme allows them to convert nitrogen gas into ammonium.
Diazotrophs- An organism which is able to grow without external sources of fixed N. All diazotrophs contains Fe-Mo nitrogenase systems.
Morphology of Rhizobium bacteria:
1.Unicellular heterotrophs.
2.Small to medium sized 0.5-0.9 X 1.2-3.0 microns.
3.Gram negative non sporulating rods.
4.They are motile when young and have peritrichous flagella.
5.Cells contain characteristic granules of polymerized beta hydroxyl butyrate (40-50 % of cell dry weight).
6.Most strains produce gum (extracellular polysaccharide slime) of varying composition.
7.A large irregularly shaped nuclear region in centre surrounded by a narrow region of denser cytoplasm.
Diazotrophs- An organism which is able to grow without external sources of fixed N. All diazotrophs contains Fe-Mo nitrogenase systems.
Morphology of Rhizobium bacteria:
1.Unicellular heterotrophs.
2.Small to medium sized 0.5-0.9 X 1.2-3.0 microns.
3.Gram negative non sporulating rods.
4.They are motile when young and have peritrichous flagella.
5.Cells contain characteristic granules of polymerized beta hydroxyl butyrate (40-50 % of cell dry weight).
6.Most strains produce gum (extracellular polysaccharide slime) of varying composition.
7.A large irregularly shaped nuclear region in centre surrounded by a narrow region of denser cytoplasm.
Saturday, January 30, 2010
What are Spices & Condiments
Spices are those plants, the products of which are made use of as food adjuvant to add aroma and flavour (Eg. Pepper, cardamom, clove and nutmeg).
Condiments are also plants, products of which are used as food adjuvant to add ‘taste’ only (Eg. Coriander, Cumin etc.)
Plantation crops are plants which are grown in extensive scale like coconut, arecanut, tea, coffee, cocoa and rubber etc., are known as plantation crops.
Classification of spices
There are about 35 spices and condiments which can be broadly classified into 6 groups, based upon the parts of the plants from which they are obtained:
a. Rhizomes and root spices: Ginger, Turmeric, and Garlic.
b. Seed spices: Nutmeg, Coriander, Fennel, Cumin, Fenugreek, Dill, Aniseed, Celery and Bishopweed.
c. Bark spices: Cinnamom
d. Fruit spices: Cardamom, Black pepper, Vanilla, All spice, Cassia, Tamarind, etc.
e. Leaf spices: Bay leaf, Curry leaf, etc.
f. Flower spices: Clove, Saffron, Asafoetida, etc.
Types of Chickpea
Chickpea is a herbaceous annual plant which branches from the base. It is almost a small bush with diffused, spreading branches. The plant is mostly covered with glandular or nonglandular hairs but some genotypes do not possess hair.
Based on seed size and color, cultivated chickpeas are of two types (Cubero 1975).
1. Macrosperma (kabuli type). The seeds of this type are large (100-seed mass >25 g), round or ramhead, and cream-colored. The plant is medium to tall in height, with large leaflets and white flowers, and contain no anthocyanin.
2. Microsperma (desi type). The seeds of this type are small and angular in shape. The seed color varies from cream, black, brown, yellow to green. There are 2-3 ovules pod-1 but on an average 1-2 seeds pod-1 are produced. The plants are short with small leaflets and purplish flowers, and contain anthocyanin.
Tools Of Financial Analysis
1) Balance sheet: It is a statement of financial position of a firm at a particular point of time.
2) Income statement: It is also called profit-loss statement. It shows firm’s earnings for the period covered, usually half yearly or yearly.
Balance Sheet
From an analyst point of view, it is a written representation of resources and liabilities of the business firm. It shows the financial condition of the business firm at a given date. The balance sheet contains and reports on assets, liabilities and net worth of a firm. Assets must always equal the sum of liabilities and net worth. What is owned by or owed to firm (assets) must equal what the firm owes to its creditors plus what is owed to its owners (net worth). Balance sheet indicates the sources from which business obtained capital for its operations and the form in which that capital is invested on a specific date. Net worth represents owner’s equity in the business.
Limitation : It is an interim statement between two operating periods. It summarizes solvency of business at a given time rather than financial transactions occurred in business during an accounting period.
benefit to owner:
• It determines the safety of their investments.
• The probability of additional capital requirements.
• Possibility of withdrawals or dividends.
• Need for reorganization or liquidation.
benefit to creditors:
• Help in determining the involved in granting credit.
• How much money safely be granted.
How helpful to management?
• Helps to judge the results of its operating activities and in planning for proper financing of future operations.
2. Income Statement
It is also called profit and loss statement. It states the source of firm’s incomes, describes the nature of the expenses, and shows the net profit earned ( or net loss incurred) during an accounting period. It is supporting evidence to balance sheet, in the sense, that it explains the change in retained earnings on the balance sheet.
Uses of Income Statement
Can determine what profit is earned by the business.
Can find particular causes of low profit or operating losses.
Management can take action to prevent the occurrences of future losses or to prevent further decline in profits.
Cash flow statement
The cash flow statement is a measure of changes in cash the business has on hand from month to month. It records or projects all cash receipts less all cash disbursements. A business may use the cash flow statement as a record of what has occurred to cash or as a projection into the future to determine future needs for cash or as both.
The cash flow statement is accurate when it is a record of past receipts and disbursements and an estimate when it is projected for future months. The cash flow statement is usually calculated on a monthly basis for an entire year.
Elements of Organization Process
Key Elements of Organization Process
The following may be said to be the key elements in the process of organization.
1) Departmentation,
2) Delegation and
3) Decentralization.
1. Departmentation
Departmentation implies the grouping of various activities on the basis of their similarity, into separate units. Departmentation of the enterprise activities can be done by:
a) Functions: production, sales, finance and personnel departments can be created.
b) Production: For each product or group of products, a separate department is created.
c) Territory: For each geographical division or territory, a separate department is created.
d) Customer: Departmentation by customer is followed to look after the sales function where, in the interest of efficiency and economy, special attention needs to be given to different customers.
e) Number: In case departmentation by numbers, activities are grouped on the basis of their performance by a certain number of persons, whereas under departmentation by time, activities are grouped on the basis of the time of their performance.
2. Delegation
The delegation has three important features, namely,
a) Assignment of duties and responsibilities.
b) Delegation of authority to perform the assigned duties and responsibilities.
c) Accountability.
3. Decentralization
Decentralization is the opposite of centralization. Under centralization, the decision-making authority is vested in the hands of one or a few individuals.
Decentralization refers to dispersal of decision-making authority. It means that decisions are to be made by persons and at places away from the centre.
Decentralization may take the form of:
a) departmentation or divisionalsation of enterprise activities;
b)dispersal of decision-making powers among executives at various levels.
The following may be said to be the key elements in the process of organization.
1) Departmentation,
2) Delegation and
3) Decentralization.
1. Departmentation
Departmentation implies the grouping of various activities on the basis of their similarity, into separate units. Departmentation of the enterprise activities can be done by:
a) Functions: production, sales, finance and personnel departments can be created.
b) Production: For each product or group of products, a separate department is created.
c) Territory: For each geographical division or territory, a separate department is created.
d) Customer: Departmentation by customer is followed to look after the sales function where, in the interest of efficiency and economy, special attention needs to be given to different customers.
e) Number: In case departmentation by numbers, activities are grouped on the basis of their performance by a certain number of persons, whereas under departmentation by time, activities are grouped on the basis of the time of their performance.
2. Delegation
The delegation has three important features, namely,
a) Assignment of duties and responsibilities.
b) Delegation of authority to perform the assigned duties and responsibilities.
c) Accountability.
3. Decentralization
Decentralization is the opposite of centralization. Under centralization, the decision-making authority is vested in the hands of one or a few individuals.
Decentralization refers to dispersal of decision-making authority. It means that decisions are to be made by persons and at places away from the centre.
Decentralization may take the form of:
a) departmentation or divisionalsation of enterprise activities;
b)dispersal of decision-making powers among executives at various levels.
Indira Sona, the first rice hybrid for the shallow lowlands of Chhattisgarh State
The rainfed lowland ecosystem occupies about 40% of the state’s total rice area. Yield in these areas has remained stagnant in the past decades. Several pockets within this system can be considered as favorable lowland.The IGKV has identified the first rice hybrid, Indira Sona, for the shallow lowland ecosystem. Released for commercial cultivation in 2006. The hybrid has medium growth duration and high yield potential (8–9 t ha–1) (table). The area under hybrid rice is increasing gradually in the state and is currently around 50,000 ha.
Seed production of Indira Sona is easier because it involves less staggered flowering between the female and male parental lines (5−7 d). The restorer line (R710-437-1-1) has good floral characters—i.e., asynchronous flowering with good pollen load. Thus, only two staggered sowings of the restorer line are required for seed production. The panicle of restorer line R710-437-1-1 is pale green at the time of flowering; the sickle-shaped bunt at the end of the panicle is one of the restorer’s distinguishing features.
Friday, January 22, 2010
Processing Technology Of Turmeric
Turmeric processing technology-Botanical name of turmeric is curcutha longa L. It is an important spice which is used for yellow colour and special flavour. Rhizomes of turmeric are often found in violet yellow colour. Central rhizomes are like tubers and small rhizomes like fingers coming out from the central one. It contains 1.8 to 5.4% curcumin due to this it has yellow colour. Some amount of starch and 2.5 to 7.2% oil is also obtained. It is used in the form of spices for colouration and flavour. In this very form it is used in medicine and cosmetic goods manufacturing. There are two types of turmeric produced in central India. One has solid and dark colour and the other long, soft and light colour.
Washing-At first rhizomes are separated after digging out from the soil and these are washed, so that particles of soil, spray residues and unuseful particles attached with the rhizomes are removed. For this rhizomes are kept soaked in water throughout the night. Later on rhizomes are taken out and water is sprayed. This process can be achieved by soaking and spraying equipment. Spraying is done at low pressure and wide angle jet. At the time of washing rhizomes are divided in two parts. First part from middle is called mother rhizomes. The second part of it which is long and thin is called Doctor Rhizome. Mother rhizome is kept for seed while Doctor rhizomes are further processed and sold.
Boiling/Blanching/Cooking:-The next step of processing is boiling or blanching. Traditionally boiling is done in metal or mud pots alongwith ¾ water. Top of the pots are covered with a lid or dry leaves. Boiling process is continued till foams and white foams start coming out. These come out with a special quality of flavour. Rhizomes are tested by pressing with fingers. If rhizomes are soft and inner colour has become yellow instead of red then this process is said to be complete.
By using developed method of boiling or blanching both colour and quality are improved. Time taken is less. In the developed method bulbs are treated with 0.1% Soda (Sodium Carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate or Ammonium Carbonate) and water solution. The time required for this process is 30 minutes to 6 hours. Boiler is used in the developed method which is metal kettle open from the top. Soda solution is filled in it and it is heated from the bottom by electric heater or fuel oil. Perforated frame loaded with turmeric tubers or bulbs are sunk here. Water from all sides of perforations enters inside making turmeric tubers soft. After 30 or 40 minutes bulbs/tubers are taken up and tested alongwith the frame. Cooking at the optimal level is important as overcooking spoils the colour and undercooking renders the product brittle resulting in breakage of rhizomes during drying and polishing. Once the water in the vessel starts boiling it may take 45-60 minutes to complete the cooking. Cooking at optimal level is indicated by the frothing of the liquid and the release of the characteristic turmeric aroma.
Drying -Cooked rhizomes are cooled first and spread slowly in the yard for drying. It takes at least 10 to 15 days for drying in the sun. Tubers are brought up and down in the middle of drying so that all are dried well. Mother rhizome takes comparatively more time while Doctor rhizome dries up quickly. Therefore these are dried separately also. After drying these become hard and solid. Completely dried turmeric holds 6% moisture content.
Polishing-Dried rhizomes are rubbed against ground or below the foot to take out the hard layer over them and small roots are removed. By this process colour of turmeric becomes bright or shining. Later on removed roots, light garbage and thin layerings are cleaned.
Machine is also used for polishing. For this a drum having 0.9m diameter and 0.6m length is used. It is kept horizontally on a shaft and operated by a handle. Average capacity of this machine comes to 32kg per batch. Dry turmeric 32kg approx.is filled and polishing is done at least for 7 minutes. During this period water is also sprinkled which causes improvement in the colour of turmeric.
Manual polishing consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface or trampling them under feet wrapped in gunny bags. The improved method is by using hand operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made by expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effected by abrasion of the 3 surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum. The turmeric is also polished in power operated drums.
Colouring-Exporting turmeric is given special colour by mixing yellow so that powder and processed materials can give better look and quality. Cleaning is done by two methods. One is dry colouring and the other wet colouring. In the first process dry powder of yellow colour is sprayed on boiled turmeric and rightly mixed. Powder is known as middle crome. In the wet colouring process its solution is prepared in water which is sprayed on rhizomes and mechanically mixed. After colouring is complete for one week these are dried. Later on these rhizomes are kept in sacks and closed for exporting (Adulteration-Lead chromate is sometimes used to produce a better finish. This should be actively discouraged.) For wet colouring prepare a solution of 2Kg Turmeric powder, 30 ml HCL ,140 ml Castor oil, 40 gm alum this mixture can colour 100 Kg of Turmeric.
Grinding or Powder making-Traditionally dried and polished turmeric are cut into pieces and beaten in mortar and pestle. After this is milled or ground with hand operated chakki. Hammer mill is also used for grinding. Powder should be so fine that it passes through 300 micron sieve and nothing is left over the sieve.
Processing of turmeric by traditional method-In India, at various places different methods and equipments are used, but basic method is mentioned below in a process
flow sheet.
Turmeric rhizomes ------> Washing-------> Boiling/Blanching/Cooking------> Drying-----> Colouring -------> Grinding/Powdering--------> Sieving-------> Packaging------------> Marketing
Washing-At first rhizomes are separated after digging out from the soil and these are washed, so that particles of soil, spray residues and unuseful particles attached with the rhizomes are removed. For this rhizomes are kept soaked in water throughout the night. Later on rhizomes are taken out and water is sprayed. This process can be achieved by soaking and spraying equipment. Spraying is done at low pressure and wide angle jet. At the time of washing rhizomes are divided in two parts. First part from middle is called mother rhizomes. The second part of it which is long and thin is called Doctor Rhizome. Mother rhizome is kept for seed while Doctor rhizomes are further processed and sold.
Boiling/Blanching/Cooking:-The next step of processing is boiling or blanching. Traditionally boiling is done in metal or mud pots alongwith ¾ water. Top of the pots are covered with a lid or dry leaves. Boiling process is continued till foams and white foams start coming out. These come out with a special quality of flavour. Rhizomes are tested by pressing with fingers. If rhizomes are soft and inner colour has become yellow instead of red then this process is said to be complete.
By using developed method of boiling or blanching both colour and quality are improved. Time taken is less. In the developed method bulbs are treated with 0.1% Soda (Sodium Carbonate, Sodium bicarbonate or Ammonium Carbonate) and water solution. The time required for this process is 30 minutes to 6 hours. Boiler is used in the developed method which is metal kettle open from the top. Soda solution is filled in it and it is heated from the bottom by electric heater or fuel oil. Perforated frame loaded with turmeric tubers or bulbs are sunk here. Water from all sides of perforations enters inside making turmeric tubers soft. After 30 or 40 minutes bulbs/tubers are taken up and tested alongwith the frame. Cooking at the optimal level is important as overcooking spoils the colour and undercooking renders the product brittle resulting in breakage of rhizomes during drying and polishing. Once the water in the vessel starts boiling it may take 45-60 minutes to complete the cooking. Cooking at optimal level is indicated by the frothing of the liquid and the release of the characteristic turmeric aroma.
Drying -Cooked rhizomes are cooled first and spread slowly in the yard for drying. It takes at least 10 to 15 days for drying in the sun. Tubers are brought up and down in the middle of drying so that all are dried well. Mother rhizome takes comparatively more time while Doctor rhizome dries up quickly. Therefore these are dried separately also. After drying these become hard and solid. Completely dried turmeric holds 6% moisture content.
Polishing-Dried rhizomes are rubbed against ground or below the foot to take out the hard layer over them and small roots are removed. By this process colour of turmeric becomes bright or shining. Later on removed roots, light garbage and thin layerings are cleaned.
Machine is also used for polishing. For this a drum having 0.9m diameter and 0.6m length is used. It is kept horizontally on a shaft and operated by a handle. Average capacity of this machine comes to 32kg per batch. Dry turmeric 32kg approx.is filled and polishing is done at least for 7 minutes. During this period water is also sprinkled which causes improvement in the colour of turmeric.
Manual polishing consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface or trampling them under feet wrapped in gunny bags. The improved method is by using hand operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made by expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effected by abrasion of the 3 surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum. The turmeric is also polished in power operated drums.
Colouring-Exporting turmeric is given special colour by mixing yellow so that powder and processed materials can give better look and quality. Cleaning is done by two methods. One is dry colouring and the other wet colouring. In the first process dry powder of yellow colour is sprayed on boiled turmeric and rightly mixed. Powder is known as middle crome. In the wet colouring process its solution is prepared in water which is sprayed on rhizomes and mechanically mixed. After colouring is complete for one week these are dried. Later on these rhizomes are kept in sacks and closed for exporting (Adulteration-Lead chromate is sometimes used to produce a better finish. This should be actively discouraged.) For wet colouring prepare a solution of 2Kg Turmeric powder, 30 ml HCL ,140 ml Castor oil, 40 gm alum this mixture can colour 100 Kg of Turmeric.
Grinding or Powder making-Traditionally dried and polished turmeric are cut into pieces and beaten in mortar and pestle. After this is milled or ground with hand operated chakki. Hammer mill is also used for grinding. Powder should be so fine that it passes through 300 micron sieve and nothing is left over the sieve.
Processing of turmeric by traditional method-In India, at various places different methods and equipments are used, but basic method is mentioned below in a process
flow sheet.
Turmeric rhizomes ------> Washing-------> Boiling/Blanching/Cooking------> Drying-----> Colouring -------> Grinding/Powdering--------> Sieving-------> Packaging------------> Marketing
Forms of Ginger and Process Of making Dried Ginger
Forms of ginger- Ginger is usually available in three different forms:
•Fresh (green) root ginger
•Preserved ginger in brine or syrup
•Dried ginger spice.
Fresh ginger is usually consumed in the area where it is produced, although it is possible to transport fresh roots internationally. Both mature and immature rhizomes are consumed as a fresh vegetable.
Preserved ginger is only made from immature rhizomes. Most preserved ginger is exported. Hong Kong, China and Australia are the major producers of preserved ginger and dominate the world market.
Making preserved ginger is not simple as it requires a great deal of care and attention to quality. Only the youngest tenderest stems of ginger should be used. It is difficult to compete with the well established Chinese and Australian producers; therefore processors are advised against making this product.
Dried ginger spice is produced from the mature rhizome. As the rhizome matures the flavour and aroma become much stronger. Dried ginger is exported, usually in large pieces which are ground into a spice in the country of destination. Dried ginger can be ground and used directly as a spice and also for the extraction of ginger oil and ginger oleoresin.
This brief outlines the important steps that should be taken pre-harvest and post-harvest to produce dried ginger.
Processing dried ginger-There are two important factors to consider when selecting ginger rhizomes for processing:
a.Stage of maturity at harvest. Ginger rhizomes can be harvested from about 5 months after planting. At this stage they are immature. The roots are tender with a mild flavour and are suitable for fresh consumption or for processing into preserved ginger. After 7 months the rhizomes will become less tender and the flavour will be too strong to use them fresh. They are then only useful for drying. Mature rhizomes for drying are harvested between 8 and 9 months of age when they have a high aroma and flavour. If they are harvested later than this the fibre content will be too high.
b.Native properties of the type grown. Gingers grown in different parts of the world can differ in their native properties such as flavour, aroma and colour and this affects their suitability for processing. This is most important when preparing dried ginger, which needs rhizomes with a strong flavour and aroma. Himachel, Maran, Mananthody and Kuruppampady are good varieties for the preparation of dried ginger. Size of rhizome is an important factor to consider when drying ginger – medium sized rhizomes are the most suitable for drying. Large rhizomes often have a high moisture content which causes problems with drying.
Making dried ginger-Dried ginger is available in a number of different forms – the rhizomes can be left whole or they may be split or sliced into smaller pieces to accelerate drying. Sometimes the rhizomes are killed by peeling or boiling them for 10 to 15 minutes, which causes the rhizomes to become blackened. They have to be whitened (bleached) by treating with lime or sulphurous acid. The only product which is acceptable for the UK market is cleanly peeled dried ginger.
The process for dried ginger:
•The fresh rhizome is harvested at between 8 to 9 months of age.
•The roots and leaves are removed and the rhizomes are washed.
•The rhizomes have to be ‘killed’ or inactivated. This is done by peeling, rough scraping or chopping the rhizome into slices (either lengthwise or across the rhizome). The skin should be peeled off using a wooden scraper made from bamboo to prevent staining the rhizome. Whole unpeeled rhizomes can be killed by boiling in water for 10 minutes.
•After peeling and washing, the rhizomes are soaked for 2-3 hours in clean water then soaked in a solution of 1.5-2.0% lime (calcium oxide) for 6 hours. This produces a lighter coloured (bleached) rhizome. After soaking, the rhizomes are drained.
•The rhizomes are dried. The traditional method is to lay the pieces on clean bamboo mats or on a concrete floor and sun-dry until a final moisture content of 10%. Drying may take anything from 7 to 14 days depending upon the weather conditions. During drying, the rhizomes lose between 60 and 70% in weight.
•In rainy conditions, a mechanical drier such as a tray drier should be used to accelerate the drying process. Sliced ginger pieces take only 5-6 hours to dry when a hot air drier is used. Whole peeled ginger rhizomes take about 16-18 hours to dry in a mechanical drier. It is important to monitor the air flow and temperature during drying. The drying temperature should not exceed 60°C as this causes the rhizome flesh to darken. See the Practical Action Technical Brief on drying for further information on the different types of drier available.
•After drying, the rhizomes are cleaned to remove any dirt, pieces of dried peel and insects. An air separator can be used for large quantities, but at the small scale it is probably not cost effective.
•The dried rhizomes should be packaged into air-tight, moisture proof packaging for storage or export.
Quality assurance of dried ginger- Quality of the dried ginger is assessed by the appearance of the final product (colour, lack of mould or aflatoxin) and the aroma and flavour. These qualities are influenced by a combination of pre- and post-harvest factors:
•The most important factor is the cultivar of ginger used as this determines the flavour, aroma, pungency and levels of essential oil and fibre.
•The stage or maturity of the rhizome at harvest determines its suitability for end use. Rhizomes that are 8-9 months old produce the best quality dried ginger as they have a good combination of aroma and pungency and not too much fibre.
•After harvest the rhizomes should be handled with care to prevent injury. They should be washed immediately after harvest to ensure a pale colour. The wet rhizomes should not be allowed to lie in heaps for too long as they will begin to ferment.
•Care should be taken when removing the outer cork skin. It is essential to remove the skin to reduce the fibre content, but if the peeling is too thick, it may reduce the content of volatile oil which is contained near the surface of the rhizome.
•During drying the rhizomes should lose about 60-70% of their weight and achieve a final moisture content of 7-12%. Care should be taken to prevent the growth of mould during drying.
•The use of a mechanical drier produces a higher quality, cleaner product. The drying conditions can be carefully controlled and monitored and the time taken to dry is considerably reduced.
•After harvest, the cleaning, peeling and drying processes should be carried out as quickly as possible to prevent the growth of bacteria and mould and to prevent fermentation. If the drying process takes too long there is a risk of the ginger becoming infected by aflatoxin or other fungus.
•Dried ginger should be stored in a dry place to prevent the growth of mould. Storage for a long time results in the loss of flavour and pungency.
Grinding-Grinding can be a method of adding value to a product. However, it is not advisable to grind spices as they are more vulnerable to spoilage after grinding. The flavour and aroma compounds are not stable and will quickly disappear from ground products. The storage life of ground spices is much less than for the whole spices. It is very difficult for the consumer to judge the quality of a ground spice. It is also very easy for unscrupulous processors to contaminate the ground spice by adding other material. Therefore most consumers, from wholesalers to individual customers, prefer to buy whole spices.
Dried ginger is usually exported whole and ground in the country of import.
Packaging-Bulk rhizomes can be packed in jute sacks, wooden boxes or lined corrugated cardboard boxes for shipping. Dry slices or powder are packaged in multi-wall laminated bags. Some laminates are better than others due to film permeability. The packaging material should be impermeable to moisture and air. Sealing machines can be used to seal the bags.
Storage-Dried rhizomes, slices and splits should be stored in a cool place (10-15°C). At higher temperatures (23-26°C) the flavour compounds start to deteriorate and ginger loses some of its taste and aroma. The storage room should be dry and away from the direct sunlight. During storage the rhizomes should be protected from attack by insects and other pests. Natural pesticides such as the leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla or Azadirachta indica can be added to the rhizomes to prevent damage from the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricome).
The storage room should be clean, dry, cool and free from pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the windows to prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling foods, detergents and paints should not be stored in the same room.
•Fresh (green) root ginger
•Preserved ginger in brine or syrup
•Dried ginger spice.
Fresh ginger is usually consumed in the area where it is produced, although it is possible to transport fresh roots internationally. Both mature and immature rhizomes are consumed as a fresh vegetable.
Preserved ginger is only made from immature rhizomes. Most preserved ginger is exported. Hong Kong, China and Australia are the major producers of preserved ginger and dominate the world market.
Making preserved ginger is not simple as it requires a great deal of care and attention to quality. Only the youngest tenderest stems of ginger should be used. It is difficult to compete with the well established Chinese and Australian producers; therefore processors are advised against making this product.
Dried ginger spice is produced from the mature rhizome. As the rhizome matures the flavour and aroma become much stronger. Dried ginger is exported, usually in large pieces which are ground into a spice in the country of destination. Dried ginger can be ground and used directly as a spice and also for the extraction of ginger oil and ginger oleoresin.
This brief outlines the important steps that should be taken pre-harvest and post-harvest to produce dried ginger.
Processing dried ginger-There are two important factors to consider when selecting ginger rhizomes for processing:
a.Stage of maturity at harvest. Ginger rhizomes can be harvested from about 5 months after planting. At this stage they are immature. The roots are tender with a mild flavour and are suitable for fresh consumption or for processing into preserved ginger. After 7 months the rhizomes will become less tender and the flavour will be too strong to use them fresh. They are then only useful for drying. Mature rhizomes for drying are harvested between 8 and 9 months of age when they have a high aroma and flavour. If they are harvested later than this the fibre content will be too high.
b.Native properties of the type grown. Gingers grown in different parts of the world can differ in their native properties such as flavour, aroma and colour and this affects their suitability for processing. This is most important when preparing dried ginger, which needs rhizomes with a strong flavour and aroma. Himachel, Maran, Mananthody and Kuruppampady are good varieties for the preparation of dried ginger. Size of rhizome is an important factor to consider when drying ginger – medium sized rhizomes are the most suitable for drying. Large rhizomes often have a high moisture content which causes problems with drying.
Making dried ginger-Dried ginger is available in a number of different forms – the rhizomes can be left whole or they may be split or sliced into smaller pieces to accelerate drying. Sometimes the rhizomes are killed by peeling or boiling them for 10 to 15 minutes, which causes the rhizomes to become blackened. They have to be whitened (bleached) by treating with lime or sulphurous acid. The only product which is acceptable for the UK market is cleanly peeled dried ginger.
The process for dried ginger:
•The fresh rhizome is harvested at between 8 to 9 months of age.
•The roots and leaves are removed and the rhizomes are washed.
•The rhizomes have to be ‘killed’ or inactivated. This is done by peeling, rough scraping or chopping the rhizome into slices (either lengthwise or across the rhizome). The skin should be peeled off using a wooden scraper made from bamboo to prevent staining the rhizome. Whole unpeeled rhizomes can be killed by boiling in water for 10 minutes.
•After peeling and washing, the rhizomes are soaked for 2-3 hours in clean water then soaked in a solution of 1.5-2.0% lime (calcium oxide) for 6 hours. This produces a lighter coloured (bleached) rhizome. After soaking, the rhizomes are drained.
•The rhizomes are dried. The traditional method is to lay the pieces on clean bamboo mats or on a concrete floor and sun-dry until a final moisture content of 10%. Drying may take anything from 7 to 14 days depending upon the weather conditions. During drying, the rhizomes lose between 60 and 70% in weight.
•In rainy conditions, a mechanical drier such as a tray drier should be used to accelerate the drying process. Sliced ginger pieces take only 5-6 hours to dry when a hot air drier is used. Whole peeled ginger rhizomes take about 16-18 hours to dry in a mechanical drier. It is important to monitor the air flow and temperature during drying. The drying temperature should not exceed 60°C as this causes the rhizome flesh to darken. See the Practical Action Technical Brief on drying for further information on the different types of drier available.
•After drying, the rhizomes are cleaned to remove any dirt, pieces of dried peel and insects. An air separator can be used for large quantities, but at the small scale it is probably not cost effective.
•The dried rhizomes should be packaged into air-tight, moisture proof packaging for storage or export.
Quality assurance of dried ginger- Quality of the dried ginger is assessed by the appearance of the final product (colour, lack of mould or aflatoxin) and the aroma and flavour. These qualities are influenced by a combination of pre- and post-harvest factors:
•The most important factor is the cultivar of ginger used as this determines the flavour, aroma, pungency and levels of essential oil and fibre.
•The stage or maturity of the rhizome at harvest determines its suitability for end use. Rhizomes that are 8-9 months old produce the best quality dried ginger as they have a good combination of aroma and pungency and not too much fibre.
•After harvest the rhizomes should be handled with care to prevent injury. They should be washed immediately after harvest to ensure a pale colour. The wet rhizomes should not be allowed to lie in heaps for too long as they will begin to ferment.
•Care should be taken when removing the outer cork skin. It is essential to remove the skin to reduce the fibre content, but if the peeling is too thick, it may reduce the content of volatile oil which is contained near the surface of the rhizome.
•During drying the rhizomes should lose about 60-70% of their weight and achieve a final moisture content of 7-12%. Care should be taken to prevent the growth of mould during drying.
•The use of a mechanical drier produces a higher quality, cleaner product. The drying conditions can be carefully controlled and monitored and the time taken to dry is considerably reduced.
•After harvest, the cleaning, peeling and drying processes should be carried out as quickly as possible to prevent the growth of bacteria and mould and to prevent fermentation. If the drying process takes too long there is a risk of the ginger becoming infected by aflatoxin or other fungus.
•Dried ginger should be stored in a dry place to prevent the growth of mould. Storage for a long time results in the loss of flavour and pungency.
Grinding-Grinding can be a method of adding value to a product. However, it is not advisable to grind spices as they are more vulnerable to spoilage after grinding. The flavour and aroma compounds are not stable and will quickly disappear from ground products. The storage life of ground spices is much less than for the whole spices. It is very difficult for the consumer to judge the quality of a ground spice. It is also very easy for unscrupulous processors to contaminate the ground spice by adding other material. Therefore most consumers, from wholesalers to individual customers, prefer to buy whole spices.
Dried ginger is usually exported whole and ground in the country of import.
Packaging-Bulk rhizomes can be packed in jute sacks, wooden boxes or lined corrugated cardboard boxes for shipping. Dry slices or powder are packaged in multi-wall laminated bags. Some laminates are better than others due to film permeability. The packaging material should be impermeable to moisture and air. Sealing machines can be used to seal the bags.
Storage-Dried rhizomes, slices and splits should be stored in a cool place (10-15°C). At higher temperatures (23-26°C) the flavour compounds start to deteriorate and ginger loses some of its taste and aroma. The storage room should be dry and away from the direct sunlight. During storage the rhizomes should be protected from attack by insects and other pests. Natural pesticides such as the leaves of Glycosmis pentaphylla or Azadirachta indica can be added to the rhizomes to prevent damage from the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricome).
The storage room should be clean, dry, cool and free from pests. Mosquito netting should be fitted on the windows to prevent pests and insects from entering the room. Strong smelling foods, detergents and paints should not be stored in the same room.
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